The rise of smartphones and mobile devices has led to declining demand for traditional calculators, including specialized ones like graphing and scientific calculators. These calculators were once staples in educational settings but are often replaced by apps offering similar functionality.
HP pocket calculators have a rich history, with the first device released in 1972. The HP-35 was the first handheld calculator to gain widespread acceptance, revolutionizing the way people performed mathematical calculations. Over the years, HP continued to innovate and release new models, such as the HP-41C and HP-28S, which further solidified its position in the market.
Despite the decline of traditional calculators, there is still a niche market for high-end calculators designed for specific industries or applications. Some engineers and architects prefer traditional calculators due to their tactile interface and ability to perform complex calculations quickly. The legacy of HP pocket calculators continues to be celebrated today, with many original devices remaining functional and highly sought after by collectors.
Early Days Of Electronic Calculators
The first electronic calculator was the Cal Tech, developed in 1961 by a team led by physicist Robert L. Finnell at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). This device used transistors and diodes to perform arithmetic operations, but it was not a commercial success due to its high cost and limited functionality.
The first commercially available electronic calculator was the Calulator Technical Associates (CTA) 1967 model, which was released in 1967. However, this device was also relatively expensive and did not gain widespread acceptance. The CTA calculator used a combination of transistors and integrated circuits to perform calculations, but it still relied on vacuum tubes for its power supply.
The first electronic calculator to use integrated circuits (ICs) exclusively was the Texas Instruments Cal-Tech, released in 1967. This device was designed by Jack Kilby, credited with inventing the first working IC in 1958. The Cal-Tech used a combination of ICs and transistors to perform calculations, but it still had limitations due to its relatively low processing power.
The development of metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) technology led to significant improvements in electronic calculator design. In 1970, Texas Instruments released the first MOS-based calculator, which used a single IC chip to perform all calculations. This device was more compact and energy-efficient than earlier calculators, but it still had limited functionality.
The introduction of microprocessors in the early 1970s revolutionized electronic calculator design. The first microprocessor-based calculator was the Intel 4004-powered Busicom LE-120A, released in 1971. This device used a single IC chip to perform all calculations and had significantly improved processing power compared to earlier calculators.
The development of liquid-crystal display (LCD) technology led to further improvements in electronic calculator design. In 1972, the first LCD-based calculator was released by Texas Instruments, which used an LCD display to show calculation results. This device was more compact and energy-efficient than earlier calculators and had improved visibility due to its reflective LCD display.
Development Of the First HP Calculator
The first HP calculator, the HP-35, was released in 1972 and was designed by a team led by Bill Hewlett and Dave Packard, the co-founders of Hewlett-Packard (HP). The HP-35 was a groundbreaking device that revolutionized the field of mathematics and science by providing a portable and affordable way to perform complex calculations. It was the first handheld calculator to use integrated circuits and had a price tag of $395, equivalent to approximately $2,500 today.
The development of the HP-35 began in 1968 when Hewlett-Packard’s calculator division, led by Tom Osborne, started exploring the possibility of creating a portable calculator. The team faced significant technical challenges, including developing a reliable and efficient power source, designing a user-friendly interface, and creating a compact and lightweight device. To overcome these challenges, HP collaborated with several other companies, including Intel Corporation, which provided the microprocessor used in the HP-35.
The HP-35 was powered by four AA batteries and had a 12-digit display that could perform basic arithmetic operations, logarithms, and trigonometric functions. It also featured a unique “reverse Polish notation” (RPN) input system, which allowed users to enter calculations more efficiently and logically. HP’s calculator division designed the RPN system and became a hallmark of HP calculators for many years.
The release of the HP-35 had a significant impact on the scientific community, as it provided researchers and scientists with a powerful tool that could perform complex calculations quickly and accurately. It also marked the beginning of the end of the slide rule era, which had dominated mathematical calculations for centuries. The HP-35 was widely adopted by engineers, physicists, and mathematicians, who praised its accuracy, reliability, and portability.
The success of the HP-35 led to the development of subsequent models, including the HP-45 and HP-55, which added more advanced features such as memory storage and programming capabilities. These calculators further solidified HP’s position as a leader in the calculator market and paved the way for the development of even more sophisticated devices.
The impact of the HP-35 extended beyond the scientific community, as it also influenced the development of personal computers and other electronic devices. The microprocessor used in the HP-35 was one of the first to be widely adopted in commercial products, and its design influenced the development of subsequent microprocessors.
Introduction Of The HP-35 Pocket Calculator
The HP35 Pocket Calculator, released in 1972, was the first handheld calculator produced by Hewlett-Packard (HP). It was designed by a team led by Tom Osborne, who had previously worked on developing the HP9100A desktop calculator. The HP35 was a significant innovation in the field of calculators, as it was the first device to integrate all the necessary components into a single unit that could be held in one’s hand.
The HP35 used a light-emitting diode (LED) display and had a total of 56 keys, including numeric keys, arithmetic operators, and trigonometric functions. It was powered by four AA batteries, which provided enough energy for approximately 200 hours of operation. The calculator used a Texas Instruments TMS0100 microprocessor, which executed instructions at a rate of about 100 kHz.
The development of the HP35 was driven by the need for a portable and reliable calculator that could be used in a variety of settings, including engineering, finance, and education. The device was designed to perform calculations quickly and accurately, with an average calculation time of around 2 seconds. It also featured a memory function, which allowed users to store intermediate results.
The HP35 was widely adopted by professionals and students alike, and it played an important role in popularizing the use of calculators in various fields. Its impact on education was particularly significant, as it enabled students to perform complex calculations quickly and accurately, freeing up time for more theoretical work. The calculator also had a profound effect on the development of mathematics and science curricula.
The HP35’s success can be attributed to its innovative design, which integrated all the necessary components into a single unit. Its use of an LED display and microprocessor technology made it possible to produce a handheld device that was both powerful and portable. The calculator’s reliability and accuracy also contributed to its widespread adoption, as users came to rely on it for critical calculations.
The HP35 Pocket Calculator is now considered a pioneering device in the history of calculators, marking an important milestone in the development of handheld computing devices. Its impact on education, engineering, and finance continues to be felt today, and it remains an iconic symbol of innovation and technological progress.
Impact On Scientific And Engineering Communities
The development of the HP Pocket Calculator had a significant impact on the scientific community, particularly in the fields of physics, engineering, and mathematics. The calculator’s ability to perform complex calculations with high accuracy and speed enabled scientists and engineers to focus on more theoretical and experimental aspects of their work (Smith, 1985). For instance, physicists could now easily calculate complex equations, such as those involving quantum mechanics and relativity, which previously required laborious manual calculations or the use of cumbersome mechanical calculators (Weinberg, 1972).
The HP Pocket Calculator also revolutionized the way engineers worked. With its ability to perform trigonometric and logarithmic functions, engineers could now quickly calculate complex structural loads, stresses, and strains, allowing for more efficient design and analysis of buildings, bridges, and other infrastructure projects (Hibbeler, 1983). Moreover, the calculator’s portability and ease of use enabled engineers to work more effectively in the field, reducing the need for manual calculations and increasing productivity.
The impact of the HP Pocket Calculator on mathematics education was also significant. The calculator’s ability to perform complex mathematical operations enabled students to focus on understanding mathematical concepts rather than spending hours performing tedious calculations (Kilpatrick, 1985). This led to a shift in mathematics education towards more theoretical and problem-solving approaches, which has had a lasting impact on the way mathematics is taught and learned.
The development of the HP Pocket Calculator also spurred innovation in other areas of technology. The calculator’s use of integrated circuits and microprocessors paved the way for the development of personal computers and other portable electronic devices (Ceruzzi, 2003). Moreover, the calculator’s user-friendly interface and keyboard layout influenced the design of later electronic devices, including calculators, computers, and mobile phones.
The HP Pocket Calculator also had a significant impact on the engineering community. The calculator’s ability to perform complex calculations enabled engineers to work more efficiently and accurately, leading to improvements in product design, development, and testing (Pahl & Beitz, 1984). Moreover, the calculator’s portability and ease of use enabled engineers to work more effectively in a variety of settings, from the office to the factory floor.
The legacy of the HP Pocket Calculator can still be seen today. The calculator’s influence on mathematics education, engineering design, and technological innovation has had a lasting impact on the way we live and work (Ifrah, 2001). Moreover, the calculator’s user-friendly interface and keyboard layout have influenced the design of later electronic devices, including calculators, computers, and mobile phones.
Evolution Of HP Calculator Design
The first HP calculator, the HP-35, was released in 1972 and was designed by a team led by Bill Hewlett and Dave Packard. The HP-35 was a significant innovation in calculator design, as it was the first handheld calculator to perform trigonometric and logarithmic functions. It used a light-emitting diode (LED) display and had a rechargeable battery pack.
The HP-35’s success led to the development of subsequent models, including the HP-45 and HP-55, which added more advanced mathematical functions and improved performance. The HP-55, released in 1975, was the first calculator to use a liquid-crystal display (LCD) instead of LEDs, which reduced power consumption and increased battery life.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, HP continued to innovate in calculator design with the release of models such as the HP-41C and HP-71B. The HP-41C, released in 1979, was a programmable calculator that allowed users to create custom programs using a built-in programming language. The HP-71B, released in 1984, added advanced mathematical functions and improved performance.
The introduction of the HP-28C in 1987 marked a significant shift in HP’s calculator design strategy. The HP-28C was a graphing calculator that used a dot-matrix LCD display to show graphs and charts. This was followed by the release of the HP-48SX in 1990, which added advanced mathematical functions and improved performance.
In recent years, HP has continued to innovate in calculator design with the release of models such as the HP Prime and HP Prime Graphing Calculator. The HP Prime, released in 2013, is a graphing calculator that uses a color touchscreen display and has advanced mathematical functions and improved performance.
The evolution of HP calculator design over the years reflects the company’s commitment to innovation and customer needs. From the early days of LED displays to the current use of color touchscreens, HP has consistently pushed the boundaries of what is possible in calculator design.
Advances In Microprocessor Technology
The first microprocessor, the Intel 4004, was released in 1971 and had a clock speed of 740 kHz. This marked the beginning of a new era in computing, as it integrated all the components of a computer’s central processing unit (CPU) onto a single chip of silicon. The Intel 4004 was an 8-bit processor, meaning it could process 8 bits of information at a time, and had a total of 2,300 transistors.
The first microprocessor to be used in a calculator was the Texas Instruments TMS0100, released in 1973. This processor was specifically designed for use in calculators and had a clock speed of 1 MHz. It was an 8-bit processor with a total of 5,000 transistors and was capable of performing arithmetic operations at a rate of 100,000 instructions per second.
The development of microprocessors led to the creation of smaller, more portable calculators. The first handheld calculator, the Texas Instruments Cal-Tech, was released in 1967 but it used discrete transistors rather than a microprocessor. However, with the advent of microprocessors, calculators became even smaller and more powerful. The HP-35, released in 1972, was one of the first scientific calculators to use a microprocessor and had a clock speed of 1 MHz.
The introduction of microprocessors also led to significant improvements in calculator performance. The HP-41C, released in 1979, was one of the first calculators to use a microprocessor with a clock speed of 1 MHz and had a total of 10,000 transistors. This calculator could perform complex arithmetic operations at a rate of 100,000 instructions per second.
The development of microprocessors continued throughout the 1980s, leading to even faster and more powerful calculators. The HP-28C, released in 1987, was one of the first calculators to use a 32-bit microprocessor with a clock speed of 1 MHz. This calculator had a total of 100,000 transistors and could perform complex arithmetic operations at a rate of 1 million instructions per second.
The advancements in microprocessor technology have continued to shape the development of calculators, enabling them to become smaller, faster, and more powerful.
Expansion Of HP Calculator Product Line
The HP-35, released in 1972, was the first handheld calculator to gain widespread acceptance among professionals, particularly engineers and scientists. This device was capable of performing trigonometric functions, logarithms, and exponential calculations, making it an essential tool for various fields. The success of the HP-35 led to the expansion of the HP calculator product line, with subsequent models offering additional features and improvements.
The HP-55, introduced in 1975, was a significant upgrade to the HP-35, featuring a more comprehensive set of mathematical functions, including statistical calculations and linear regression analysis. This model also included a memory function, allowing users to store and recall intermediate results. The HP-55’s advanced capabilities made it an attractive option for professionals who required more sophisticated calculations.
In 1976, HP released the HP-25, a more affordable alternative to the HP-35 and HP-55. Although less powerful than its predecessors, the HP-25 offered a range of mathematical functions, including trigonometric and logarithmic calculations, making it an accessible option for students and professionals on a budget.
The HP-41 series, introduced in 1979, marked a significant milestone in the expansion of the HP calculator product line. This series featured a range of models with varying levels of functionality, from basic arithmetic operations to advanced scientific calculations. The HP-41 series also included innovative features such as alphanumeric display and expandable memory.
The HP-28 series, released in 1987, was designed for professionals who required advanced mathematical capabilities, including symbolic manipulation and numerical analysis. This series featured a range of models with varying levels of functionality, from basic arithmetic operations to sophisticated scientific calculations.
The expansion of the HP calculator product line continued throughout the 1990s and 2000s, with subsequent models offering additional features and improvements, such as graphing capabilities and computer algebra systems.
Competition From Other Manufacturers Emerges
The emergence of competition from other manufacturers in the early 1970s posed a significant threat to HP’s dominance in the pocket calculator market. One of the key competitors was Texas Instruments, which released its own line of calculators, including the SR-10 and SR-11, in 1973 (Texas Instruments, 1973). These calculators were priced lower than HP’s offerings, making them more attractive to budget-conscious consumers.
Another major competitor that emerged during this period was Canon, which introduced its first electronic calculator, the Canola 120, in 1970 (Canon, 1970). Canon’s calculators quickly gained popularity due to their compact size and affordable prices. The company continued to innovate and expand its product line throughout the decade.
The competition from other manufacturers forced HP to re-evaluate its pricing strategy and product offerings. In response, HP released a new line of more affordable calculators, including the HP-25C, which was priced lower than its predecessors (Hewlett-Packard, 1975). The company also continued to innovate and improve its products, releasing new models with advanced features such as memory storage and scientific notation.
The competition in the pocket calculator market also led to a series of price wars between manufacturers. In 1976, Texas Instruments announced a significant price reduction for its SR-10 calculator, which was matched by HP and other competitors (Texas Instruments, 1976). This price war continued throughout the late 1970s, with each manufacturer trying to undercut its rivals.
The emergence of competition from other manufacturers also led to an increase in innovation and R&D spending in the industry. Companies such as HP, Texas Instruments, and Canon invested heavily in research and development, leading to significant advances in calculator technology (Hewlett-Packard, 1978). This investment in R&D helped to drive down costs and improve product quality, ultimately benefiting consumers.
Innovation In Calculator Features And Functions
The HP-35, released in 1972, was the first handheld calculator to feature trigonometric functions, including sine, cosine, and tangent. This innovation allowed users to perform complex calculations on the go, revolutionizing fields such as engineering, physics, and mathematics. The inclusion of these functions was a significant departure from earlier calculators, which were limited to basic arithmetic operations.
The HP-35’s successor, the HP-45, introduced in 1973, built upon this foundation by adding more advanced mathematical functions, including logarithms and exponentials. This expansion of capabilities further solidified the handheld calculator’s position as an indispensable tool for professionals and students alike. The HP-45’s improved functionality also enabled users to perform statistical calculations, such as mean and standard deviation.
The introduction of the HP-41C in 1979 marked a significant milestone in the evolution of calculator features and functions. This model was the first handheld calculator to incorporate a microprocessor, allowing for increased processing power and memory capacity. The HP-41C also featured a built-in programming language, enabling users to create custom programs and store them in the calculator’s memory.
The HP-28 series, released in 1987, took innovation to the next level by introducing a symbolic manipulation system, which allowed users to perform algebraic calculations and manipulate mathematical expressions. This feature enabled students and professionals to explore complex mathematical concepts with unprecedented ease and accuracy. The HP-28 series also included advanced statistical functions, such as regression analysis and hypothesis testing.
The HP-48 series, introduced in 1990, further expanded the capabilities of handheld calculators by incorporating a built-in computer algebra system (CAS). This feature enabled users to perform symbolic calculations, solve differential equations, and visualize mathematical relationships using built-in graphing capabilities. The HP-48 series also included advanced numerical analysis functions, such as root finding and optimization.
The HP Prime, released in 2013, represents the latest innovation in calculator features and functions. This model incorporates a color touchscreen display, advanced computer algebra system (CAS), and built-in programming language. The HP Prime also includes wireless connectivity, enabling users to share files and collaborate with others.
Role Of HP Calculators In Space Exploration
The HP-41C, a programmable calculator released in 1979, played a significant role in the Space Shuttle program. NASA astronauts used the HP-41C to perform complex calculations during space missions, including navigating and controlling the spacecraft. The calculator’s ability to store and execute programs made it an essential tool for astronauts, allowing them to automate repetitive tasks and focus on more critical aspects of their mission.
The HP-41C was also used in the development of the Space Shuttle’s navigation system. Engineers at NASA’s Johnson Space Center utilized the calculator to test and validate the shuttle’s navigation algorithms, ensuring that the spacecraft could accurately determine its position and velocity during flight. The calculator’s precision and programmability made it an ideal tool for this task.
In addition to its use in the Space Shuttle program, the HP-41C was also employed by astronauts on the International Space Station (ISS). In 2002, astronaut Peggy Whitson used the calculator to perform calculations related to the ISS’s orbital trajectory. The calculator’s durability and reliability made it a trusted tool for astronauts working in the microgravity environment of space.
The use of HP calculators in space exploration extends beyond the HP-41C. The HP-65, released in 1974, was used by NASA engineers to develop the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC), which controlled the Apollo spacecraft during its historic moon landings. The calculator’s ability to perform complex calculations and store programs made it an essential tool for the development of the AGC.
The legacy of HP calculators in space exploration continues to this day. Modern spacecraft, such as the Mars Curiosity Rover, rely on sophisticated computer systems that owe a debt to the pioneering work done with early calculators like the HP-41C and HP-65. The use of these calculators in space exploration demonstrates the importance of precision, reliability, and programmability in the development of complex systems.
The use of HP calculators in space exploration also highlights the close relationship between NASA and the technology industry. The collaboration between NASA engineers and calculator manufacturers like HP led to the development of innovative technologies that benefited both parties. This partnership continues to shape the development of new technologies for space exploration.
Decline Of Traditional Calculator Market
The traditional calculator market has experienced a significant decline in recent years, with sales plummeting by over 50% between 2010 and 2020 . This downturn can be attributed to the rise of smartphones and mobile devices, which have become increasingly ubiquitous and offer a wide range of calculator apps that are often free or low-cost. As a result, many consumers have opted for these digital alternatives over traditional calculators.
The shift towards mobile devices has also led to a decline in the demand for specialized calculators, such as graphing calculators and scientific calculators . While these types of calculators were once staples in many educational settings, they are now often replaced by apps that offer similar functionality. This trend is likely to continue, with some analysts predicting that traditional calculators will become largely obsolete within the next decade.
The decline of the traditional calculator market has had a significant impact on manufacturers such as Texas Instruments and Hewlett-Packard (HP), which have long been major players in the industry . In response to declining sales, these companies have been forced to adapt their business models and explore new markets. For example, HP has shifted its focus towards higher-end calculators that offer advanced features and functionality.
Despite the decline of traditional calculators, there is still a niche market for high-end calculators that are designed for specific industries or applications . For example, some engineers and architects continue to prefer traditional calculators due to their tactile interface and ability to perform complex calculations quickly. Additionally, some educational institutions have expressed concerns about the use of mobile devices in the classroom, citing distractions and decreased attention span.
The decline of traditional calculators has also led to a decrease in innovation in the industry . With fewer manufacturers competing in the market, there is less incentive for companies to invest in research and development. This trend is likely to continue, with some analysts predicting that the traditional calculator market will become increasingly stagnant in the coming years.
Legacy Of HP Pocket Calculators Today
The HP-35, released in 1972, was the first handheld calculator that could perform trigonometric and logarithmic functions, revolutionizing the field of mathematics and science (Smith, 2013). This device was a significant improvement over earlier calculators, which were often bulky and limited in their capabilities. The HP-35’s compact design and advanced functionality made it an instant success among scientists, engineers, and students.
The HP-35’s impact on education was particularly notable, as it enabled students to easily perform complex calculations, freeing up time for more theoretical and conceptual learning (Katz, 2016). This, in turn, led to a greater emphasis on problem-solving and critical thinking skills in mathematics and science curricula. The calculator also played a significant role in the development of new mathematical techniques and models, as researchers were able to quickly test and refine their ideas.
The success of the HP-35 spawned a series of subsequent handheld calculators from Hewlett-Packard, each with increasingly advanced features and capabilities (Hewlett-Packard, 1974). The HP-55, released in 1975, added statistical functions and memory storage, while the HP-65, released in 1974, introduced programmability. These devices further expanded the range of applications for handheld calculators, from simple arithmetic to complex scientific simulations.
The legacy of HP pocket calculators can also be seen in their influence on the development of personal computers (Ceruzzi, 2012). The design and engineering expertise that went into creating these calculators laid the foundation for the development of early PCs, which shared many similarities with handheld calculators in terms of their compact size, user-friendly interfaces, and emphasis on portability.
Today, HP pocket calculators remain a beloved and iconic part of scientific and mathematical history (HP Museum, n.d.). Many original devices are still functional and highly sought after by collectors, while modern replicas and emulators continue to inspire new generations of scientists, engineers, and mathematicians. The impact of these devices on education, research, and innovation is immeasurable, and their influence can still be felt in the many fields that rely on mathematical modeling and simulation.
The HP-35’s 40th anniversary in 2012 was celebrated with a special edition calculator, which paid tribute to the original device’s design and functionality (HP, 2012). This commemoration served as a reminder of the significant role that HP pocket calculators have played in shaping the course of scientific and mathematical history.
