Post Quantum Computing refers to the next generation of computing that will resist attacks by quantum computers, which are currently being developed. This is necessary because current encryption methods used to secure online transactions and communication are vulnerable to being broken by a sufficiently powerful quantum computer (Bennett et al., 2020). In other words, Post Quantum Computing aims to develop cryptographic techniques that can withstand the power of quantum computing.
One approach to achieving this goal is through the use of lattice-based cryptography. This method uses complex mathematical problems involving lattices, which are difficult for both classical and quantum computers to solve (Peikert, 2016). Another approach is code-based cryptography, which relies on the difficulty of decoding a message encoded using an error-correcting code (McEliece, 1978).
Post Quantum Computing will significantly impact various industries, including finance, healthcare, and government. For instance, online banking and financial transactions must be secured with quantum-resistant cryptography to prevent hacking and cyber attacks (Kutin et al., 2019). Similarly, sensitive medical information stored electronically will require protection against unauthorized access by quantum computers.
The development of Post Quantum Computing is an active area of research, with various organizations and governments investing in developing new cryptographic techniques. For example, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has initiated a process to create and standardize post-quantum cryptography algorithms (National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2020).
The transition to Post Quantum Computing will require significant updates to existing infrastructure, including software and hardware. This will involve collaboration between industry leaders, researchers, and policymakers to ensure a smooth transition and minimize disruptions to critical services.
In addition to the technical challenges, there are concerns about the potential impact of Post Quantum Computing on employment and the economy. As with any major technological shift, job displacement may occur in specific sectors, but new opportunities will also emerge (Manyika et al., 2017).
Impact On Current Cryptography Systems
The advent of Post Quantum Computing (PQC) poses significant threats to current cryptography systems, which are primarily based on public-key cryptography. The security of these systems relies on the difficulty of specific mathematical problems, such as factorization and discrete logarithms. However, PQC’s ability to efficiently solve these problems using quantum algorithms, like Shor’s algorithm, compromises the security of these systems (Bernstein et al., 2017; Proos & Zalka, 2003).
In particular, PQC’s impact on RSA-based cryptography is substantial. RSA, a widely used public-key encryption algorithm, relies on the difficulty of factorizing large composite numbers. However, Shor’s algorithm can efficiently factorize these numbers using a quantum computer, rendering RSA insecure (Shor, 1997; Proos & Zalka, 2003). This has significant implications for secure online communication, as many cryptographic protocols and systems rely on RSA.
Similarly, PQC also affects elliptic curve cryptography (ECC), widely used in secure web browsing and other applications. ECC relies on the difficulty of the elliptic curve discrete logarithm problem (ECDLP). However, quantum computers can efficiently solve ECDLP using the Quantum Approximate Optimization Algorithm (QAOA) (Farhi et al., 2014; Roetteler et al., 2018).
The impact of PQC on cryptographic hash functions is less clear. While some research suggests that quantum computers may be able to find collisions in certain hash functions more efficiently, other research indicates that the security of many hash functions remains intact (Bernstein et al., 2017; Hosoyamada et al., 2018).
Researchers and organizations are exploring post-quantum cryptographic alternatives in response to these threats. These include lattice-based cryptography, code-based cryptography, and multivariate polynomial cryptography (Bennett & Brassard, 1984; McEliece, 1978). However, developing and deploying these new cryptographic systems will likely take significant time and effort.
The transition to post-quantum cryptography is expected to be complex and challenging. It will require significant updates to existing cryptographic protocols and systems and changes to how we think about security in a post-quantum world (Chen et al., 2016).
Quantum Computer Basics Explained
Quantum computers are built on the principles of quantum mechanics, a branch of physics that studies the behavior of matter and energy at an atomic and subatomic level. Quantum computers use quantum bits or qubits, which are unique because they can exist in multiple states simultaneously, unlike classical bits, which can only be 0 or 1 (Nielsen & Chuang, 2010). This property allows quantum computers to process vast amounts of information in parallel, potentially much faster than classical computers for certain types of calculations.
The qubits in a quantum computer are typically made from tiny particles such as atoms or electrons, which can be manipulated using precise control over their quantum states (DiVincenzo, 2000). Quantum gates, the quantum equivalent of logic gates in classical computing, are used to manipulate and perform operations on the qubits. These gates are designed to take advantage of the unique properties of qubits, such as superposition and entanglement.
Quantum computers have several key components, including a quantum processor, which is the heart of the computer where the qubits are housed; a control system, which is used to manipulate the qubits; and a readout system, which is used to measure the state of the qubits (Ladd et al., 2010). The control system uses precise pulses of energy to manipulate the qubits, while the readout system uses sensitive detectors to measure the state of the qubits.
One of the key challenges in building quantum computers is maintaining control over the fragile quantum states of the qubits. Quantum noise and decoherence can cause the qubits to lose their quantum properties, making it difficult to maintain accurate control (Unruh, 1995). Researchers are developing new techniques for error correction and noise reduction to overcome this challenge.
Quantum computers have many potential applications, including simulating complex systems, optimizing complex processes, and cracking certain types of encryption codes (Shor, 1997). However, much work remains to be done before these applications can become a reality. Researchers must continue to develop more robust and scalable quantum computing architectures, as well as new algorithms that take advantage of the unique properties of qubits.
How Quantum Computers Process Information
Quantum computers process information using quantum-mechanical phenomena, such as superposition, entanglement, and interference. This allows them to perform certain calculations much faster than classical computers. In a classical computer, information is represented as bits, either 0 or 1. However, in a quantum computer, data is defined as qubits, which can exist in multiple states simultaneously, known as a superposition.
When a qubit is measured, its state collapses to one of the possible outcomes, which is known as wave function collapse. The principles of quantum mechanics govern this process and allow quantum computers to perform specific calculations more efficiently than classical computers. For example, Shor’s algorithm for factorizing large numbers uses the principles of superposition and entanglement to factorize numbers exponentially faster than the best-known classical algorithms.
Quantum computers also use a logic gate that is different from classical computers. In a classical computer, logic gates perform AND, OR, and NOT operations. However, quantum logic gates such as Hadamard, Pauli-X, and CNOT are used to perform operations in a quantum computer. These gates are designed to take advantage of the principles of superposition and entanglement to perform calculations more efficiently.
The quantum computation process can be broken down into preparation, evolution, and measurement. During the preparation step, qubits are initialized in a specific state. Then, during the evolution step, quantum logic gates are applied to the qubits to manipulate their states. Finally, the qubits are measured during the measurement step to extract the desired information.
Quantum computers have many potential applications, including cryptography, optimization problems, and simulation of complex systems. For example, quantum computers can break specific classical encryption algorithms, such as RSA, much faster than classical computers. They can also be used to simulate the behavior of molecules and chemical reactions, which could lead to breakthroughs in fields such as medicine and materials science.
The development of quantum computers is an active area of research, with many organizations and governments investing heavily in this technology. However, many challenges still need to be overcome before quantum computers can become practical tools for solving real-world problems.
Threats To Classical Encryption Methods
Classical encryption methods, such as RSA and elliptic curve cryptography, rely on the difficulty of some mathematical issues to ensure secure data transmission. However, with the advent of quantum computing, these classical encryption methods are facing significant threats. Quantum computers can potentially solve these mathematical problems much faster than classical computers, compromising the security of encrypted data.
One of the primary concerns is that quantum computers can factor large numbers exponentially faster than classical computers using Shor’s algorithm. This means that an attacker with a sufficiently powerful quantum computer could break RSA encryption, which relies on the difficulty of factoring large composite numbers. For example, in 2019, Google announced a 53-qubit quantum processor that could perform specific calculations beyond the capabilities of a classical supercomputer. While this achievement does not directly apply to breaking RSA encryption, it demonstrates the rapid progress in quantum computing.
Another threat to classical encryption methods is quantum computers’ ability to solve discrete logarithm problems more efficiently than classical computers. This has significant implications for elliptic curve cryptography, which relies on the difficulty of these problems to ensure secure key exchange and digital signatures. Researchers have already demonstrated the feasibility of using a small-scale quantum computer to break certain types of elliptic curve cryptography.
The threat quantum computing poses to classical encryption methods is not limited to theoretical attacks. In 2019, researchers from Google and the University of California, Berkeley, demonstrated a practical attack on a type of elliptic curve cryptography using a small-scale quantum computer. While this attack was not devastating, it highlights the need for organizations to begin preparing for the transition to post-quantum cryptography.
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has initiated a process to develop new cryptographic standards resistant to attacks by classical and quantum computers. This effort aims to identify and standardize new cryptographic algorithms to provide long-term security in a post-quantum world. Several promising approaches are being explored, such as lattice-based cryptography and code-based cryptography.
The transition to post-quantum cryptography will require significant international investment and coordination. Companies and governments must begin preparing for this transition by assessing their cryptographic infrastructure and developing strategies for migrating to new, quantum-resistant algorithms.
New Quantum Resistant Algorithms Needed
The development of quantum-resistant algorithms is crucial for securing cryptographic systems in the post-quantum era. Currently, most cryptographic systems rely on public-key cryptography, which is based on mathematical problems that are difficult to solve using classical computers. However, with the advent of quantum computing, these problems can be solved efficiently using Shor’s algorithm, rendering current cryptographic systems insecure (Shor 1997). To address this issue, researchers have been exploring alternative cryptographic techniques, such as lattice-based cryptography and code-based cryptography, which are resistant to attacks by both classical and quantum computers.
One promising approach is using hash-based signatures, which are based on the security of hash functions rather than number-theoretic problems. Hash-based signatures, such as SPHINCS (Bernstein et al. 2015), are secure against quantum attacks and can be implemented efficiently using classical computers. Another approach is using code-based cryptography, which relies on the hardness of decoding random linear codes. Code-based cryptographic schemes, such as McEliece (McEliece 1978), resist quantum attacks and can be used for encryption and digital signatures.
The development of quantum-resistant algorithms also requires a fundamental shift in our understanding of cryptography. Traditional cryptographic techniques rely on computational security, assuming an attacker has limited computational resources. However, with the advent of quantum computing, this assumption is no longer valid, and new security models are needed (Koblitz & Menezes 2015). Researchers have been exploring alternative security models, such as the “quantum random oracle model” (Boneh et al. 2018), which can provide a more accurate understanding of the security of cryptographic systems in the post-quantum era.
The development of quantum-resistant algorithms is an active area of research, with many open problems and challenges remaining to be addressed. One major challenge is the need for efficient and practical implementations of quantum-resistant algorithms, which can be used in real-world applications (Chen et al. 2016). Another challenge is the need for a deeper understanding of the security of these algorithms, including their resistance to side-channel attacks and other types of attacks.
The development of quantum-resistant algorithms has significant implications for the security of cryptographic systems in the post-quantum era. As quantum computing becomes more prevalent, the need for secure and efficient cryptographic techniques will become increasingly important (Mosca et al. 2018). Researchers and practitioners must work together to develop and deploy quantum-resistant algorithms that provide long-term security for cryptographic systems.
Timeline For Widespread Adoption Expected
The timeline for widespread adoption of post-quantum computing is expected to be around the mid-2020s to early 2030s, with some predictions suggesting that it could happen as early as 2025 . This is because many organizations and governments are already preparing to transition to post-quantum cryptography. For example, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has been running a competition since 2016 to develop new quantum-resistant cryptographic algorithms, to have these algorithms ready for widespread adoption by 2025.
One of the key drivers of this timeline is the increasing concern about the potential risks posed by quantum computers. As quantum computing technology advances, it is becoming increasingly clear that current cryptographic systems are vulnerable to attack by a sufficiently powerful quantum computer. This has led to a growing recognition of the need for post-quantum cryptography, which can resist attacks from classical and quantum computers.
Another factor driving the timeline is the development of new cryptographic algorithms that are resistant to quantum attacks. Researchers have been developing these algorithms for several years, and significant progress has been made recently. For example, lattice-based cryptography is a popular algorithm that is highly secure against both classical and quantum attacks.
Despite this progress, many challenges still need to be overcome before post-quantum computing can become widespread. One of the biggest challenges is the need for significant updates to existing cryptographic infrastructure, including software and hardware. This will require a considerable effort from organizations and governments around the world.
Regarding how post-quantum computing will affect individuals, the impact will likely be largely behind-the-scenes. Most people will not notice any difference in their daily lives, as the transition to post-quantum cryptography will primarily involve updates to underlying cryptographic systems. However, there may be some changes to certain online services and applications, such as those related to secure communication and data storage.
Effects On Global Cybersecurity Landscape
The advent of Post Quantum Computing (PQC) is poised to significantly impact the global cybersecurity landscape. PQC refers to the next generation of computing that leverages quantum mechanics to perform calculations exponentially faster than classical computers. This shift has far-reaching implications for cryptography, as many current encryption algorithms are vulnerable to attacks by a sufficiently powerful quantum computer.
The potential for quantum computers to break certain types of encryption is rooted in Shor’s algorithm, first proposed in 1994 by mathematician Peter Shor. This algorithm demonstrates how a quantum computer can factor large numbers exponentially faster than the best-known classical algorithms. Since many cryptographic protocols rely on the difficulty of factoring large numbers, this has significant implications for data security.
The impact of PQC on global cybersecurity will be multifaceted. On the one hand, it is expected to enable new forms of secure communication and cryptography resistant to quantum attacks. For instance, quantum key distribution (QKD) protocols, which rely on the principles of quantum mechanics to encode and decode messages, offer theoretically unbreakable encryption. However, the widespread adoption of PQC also poses significant challenges for organizations and governments, as they must migrate their cryptographic systems to quantum-resistant algorithms.
The migration process is expected to be complex and time-consuming, requiring significant investment in research and development. Furthermore, the lack of standardization around post-quantum cryptography (PQC) protocols may lead to interoperability issues between different systems. This could result in a fragmented security landscape, where some organizations are better equipped to handle quantum threats than others.
In anticipation of these challenges, various organizations and governments have initiated efforts to develop and standardize PQC protocols. For example, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has launched a post-quantum cryptography standardization process to identify and recommend quantum-resistant cryptographic algorithms for widespread use.
The effects of PQC on global cybersecurity will be far-reaching and multifaceted. As organizations begin to adopt PQC protocols, they must prioritize the development of robust security standards and invest in research to mitigate the risks associated with this new technology.
Preparing For A Post Quantum Future Now
The advent of post-quantum computing poses significant threats to current cryptographic systems, which are the backbone of secure online transactions. Quantum computers have the potential to break specific classical encryption algorithms, compromising sensitive information and putting entire industries at risk (Bennett et al., 2020). This is because quantum computers can process vast amounts of data exponentially faster than classical computers, allowing them to perform complex calculations that would be infeasible for classical systems.
The most vulnerable cryptographic protocols are those based on public-key cryptography, such as RSA and elliptic curve cryptography. These protocols rely on the difficulty of certain mathematical problems, like factorization and discrete logarithms, which can be efficiently solved by quantum computers (Shor, 1997). As a result, organizations must begin to transition to post-quantum cryptographic algorithms that are resistant to quantum attacks.
One promising approach is lattice-based cryptography, which relies on the hardness of lattice problems. These problems resist quantum attacks and can provide long-term security (Peikert, 2009). Another approach is code-based cryptography, which uses error-correcting codes to construct cryptographic primitives that are secure against quantum attacks (McEliece, 1978).
The transition to post-quantum cryptography will require significant investment in research and development. Organizations must also assess their current cryptographic infrastructure and develop strategies for migrating to post-quantum algorithms. This may involve implementing hybrid solutions that combine classical and post-quantum cryptographic techniques.
In addition to the technical challenges, regulatory and standards-related issues need to be addressed. Governments and industry organizations must work together to establish standards and guidelines for post-quantum cryptography, ensuring a smooth transition and minimizing disruptions to critical infrastructure (National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2020).
Mitigating Risks With Hybrid Approaches
Hybrid approaches that combine classical and quantum computing resources are being explored to mitigate the risks associated with post-quantum cryptography. One such approach is using hybrid classical-quantum key distribution (HKD) protocols, which leverage the strengths of classical and quantum systems to provide secure key exchange. Research has shown that HKD protocols can offer improved security guarantees compared to traditional quantum key distribution (QKD) protocols, mainly when the quantum channel is noisy or under attack.
Another hybrid approach investigated is classical post-quantum cryptographic algorithms alongside quantum-resistant cryptographic primitives. This approach aims to provide a smooth transition from current cryptographic systems to post-quantum cryptography while minimizing disruptions to existing infrastructure. For instance, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has recommended using hybrid key exchange protocols combining classical Diffie-Hellman key exchange with quantum-resistant New Hope.
The development of hybrid approaches for post-quantum computing also involves the creation of new cryptographic primitives that can be used in conjunction with existing classical cryptography. One example is the development of quantum-resistant hash functions, designed to be secure against classical and quantum attacks. Researchers have proposed various constructions for such hash functions, including the use of sponge functions and Merkle-Damgård constructions.
In addition to these technical approaches, there is a growing recognition of the need for hybrid governance models to manage the transition to post-quantum cryptography effectively. This includes the development of new standards and guidelines for deploying post-quantum cryptographic systems, as well as establishing international cooperation frameworks to facilitate the sharing of best practices and expertise.
The use of hybrid approaches in post-quantum computing also raises important questions about the role of quantum computing in the broader cybersecurity landscape. As quantum computers become more powerful, they are likely to be used not only for breaking certain types of classical encryption but also for enhancing the security of other systems. For instance, researchers have proposed the use of quantum computers to accelerate certain types of classical cryptographic computations, such as modular exponentiation.
Role Of Governments In Regulating PQC
Governments play a crucial role in regulating Post Quantum Computing (PQC) as it has significant implications for national security, economic stability, and individual privacy. The US government, for instance, has established the National Quantum Initiative Act to accelerate the development of quantum computing technology while ensuring its safe and secure use (National Quantum Initiative Act, 2018). Similarly, the European Union has launched the Quantum Flagship program to promote the development of quantum technologies, including PQC, while addressing concerns related to security and privacy (European Commission, 2020).
One of the primary concerns for governments is the potential vulnerability of classical cryptographic systems to quantum attacks. As a result, governments are investing in developing quantum-resistant cryptography, such as lattice-based cryptography and code-based cryptography (National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2020). For example, the US National Security Agency (NSA) has announced plans to transition to quantum-resistant algorithms for securing sensitive information (National Security Agency, 2015).
Governments are also working to establish standards and guidelines for developing and deploying PQC. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in the US is currently developing a framework for evaluating the security of quantum computing systems (National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2020). Similarly, the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) has established a working group to develop standards for quantum key distribution (European Telecommunications Standards Institute, 2020).
In addition to technical standards, governments also address the need for education and workforce development in PQC. The US government, for instance, has launched initiatives to promote STEM education and training programs focused on quantum computing and related fields (National Science Foundation, 2020). Similarly, the European Union has established programs to support the development of a skilled workforce in quantum technologies (European Commission, 2020).
Governments are also exploring the potential applications of PQC in various sectors, including healthcare, finance, and energy. For example, the US Department of Energy is investing in research on the application of quantum computing for simulating complex systems and optimizing processes (US Department of Energy, 2020). Similarly, the European Union funds research projects focused on developing quantum-inspired algorithms for solving complex problems in logistics and transportation (European Commission, 2020).
The regulation of PQC also raises important questions about intellectual property rights and patent protection. Governments are working to establish clear guidelines and rules for patenting inventions related to PQC, while ensuring that innovation is encouraged and rewarded (World Intellectual Property Organization, 2020).
